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Knowledge is defined (Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i) facts,
information, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education;
the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject, (ii) what is known in a
particular field or in total; facts and information or (iii) awareness or
familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation. Philosophical debates
in general start with Plato's formulation of knowledge as "justified true
belief". There is however no single agreed definition of knowledge presently,
nor any prospect of one, and there remain numerous competing theories.
Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception,
learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also
used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it
for a specific purpose.
Defining knowledge
See also: epistemology
“ We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing,
as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when
we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that
fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is.
Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident — witness both
those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former
merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the
condition described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific
knowledge is something which cannot be other than it is.
”
— Aristotle, Posterior Analytics (Book 1 Part 2)
The definition of knowledge is a matter of on-going debate among philosophers.
The classical definition is found in, but not ultimately endorsed by, Plato. ,
has it that in order for there to be knowledge at least three criteria must be
fulfilled; that in order to count as knowledge, a statement must be justified,
true, and believed. Some claim that these conditions are not sufficient, as
Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. There are a number of alternatives
proposed, including Robert Nozick's arguments for a requirement that knowledge
'tracks the truth' and Simon Blackburn's additional requirement that we do not
want to say that those who meet any of these conditions 'through a defect, flaw,
or failure' have knowledge. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of
knowledge requires that the believer's evidence is such that it logically
necessitates the truth of the belief.
In contrast to this approach, Wittgenstein observed, following Moore's paradox,
that one can say "He believes it, but it isn't so", but not "He knows it, but it
isn't so". He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental
states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is
different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which
they are engaged. For example, on this account, to know that the kettle is
boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind, but to perform a particular
task with the statement that the kettle is boiling. Wittgenstein sought to
bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way "knowledge" is used in
natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance.
Reliable Knowledge
In An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method (1934), Morris R. Cohen and
Ernest Nagel reviewed the pursuit of truth as determined by logical
considerations. They reviewed ways of eliminating doubt and arriving at stable
beliefs or reliable knowledge, such as
The method of authority
The method of intuition
The methods of experimental inquiry:
Types of invariant relations
The experimental method in general
The method of agreement
The method of difference
The joint method of agreement and difference
The method of concomitant variation
The doctrine of the uniformity of nature
The plurality of causes
Their final conclusion was, "Scientific method we declare as the most assured
technique man has yet devised for controlling the flux of things and
establishing stable beliefs."
In an essay entitled "Inductive Method and Scientific Discovery," Marcello Pera
said, "In the first place, the scientific method is a procedure, a general
strategy that indicates an ordered sequence of moves (or steps) which the
scientist has to make (or go through) in order to reach the goal of his
research." (In On Scientific Discovery, edited by Grmek, Cohen, and Cimino
[1977], published in the Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science Series.)
The scientific method is not a method directly applied, but rather a guide to
the mental activity stages of originating, refining, extending, and applying
knowledge. It is subject neutral and flexible in use; it is thus suitable for
all domains.
Statements about truth must be viewed skeptically. Rather than state something
as "true," the following phrase should be used: "On the evidence available today
the balance of probability favors the view that..." (V. Gordon Childe, Man Makes
Himself, 1936)
The literature contains hundreds of formulas for the scientific method. They are
basically the same but differ in length and terminology. In an article
"Suggestions for Teaching the Scientific Method" published in the March 1961
issue of American Biology Teacher, Dr. Kenneth B.M. Crooks suggested this one:
Curiosity
Is there a problem?
Get the evidence
Attributes needed
Weigh all evidence
Make the educated guess (hypothesis)
Challenge the hypothesis
Get a conclusion
Suspend judgment
Deductive reasoning
Communicating knowledge
Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of
as a dynamic process. Hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be
viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other
forms of communication include imitation, narrative exchange along with a range
of other methods. There is no complete theory of knowledge transfer or
communication.
Situated knowledge
Situated knowledge is knowledge specific to a particular situation. Imagine two
very similar breeds of mushroom, which grow on either side of a mountain, one
nutritious, one poisonous. Relying on knowledge from one side of an ecological
boundary, after crossing to the other, may lead to starving rather than eating
perfectly healthy food near at hand, or to poisoning oneself by mistake.
Some methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from
experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge. One of the main
benefits of the scientific method is that the theories it generates are much
less situational than knowledge gained by other methods. Situational knowledge
is often embedded in language, culture, or traditions.
Knowledge generated through experience is called knowledge "a posteriori",
meaning afterwards. The pure existence of a term like "a posteriori" means this
also has a counterpart. In this case that is knowledge "a priori", meaning
before. The knowledge prior to any experience means that there are certain
"assumptions" that one takes for granted. For example if one is being told about
a chair it is clear to him that the chair is in space, that it is 3D. This
knowledge is not knowledge that one can "forget", even someone suffering from
amnesia experiences the world in 3D. See also: A priori and a posteriori.
Partial knowledge
One discipline of epistemology focusses on partial knowledge. In most realistic
cases, it is not possible to have an exhaustive understanding of an information
domain, so then we have to live with the fact that our knowledge is always not
complete, that is, partial. Most real problems have to be solved by taking
advantage of a partial understanding of the problem context and problem data.
That is very different from the typical simple math problems that we solve at
school, where all data are given and we have a perfect understanding of formulas
necessary to solve them.
Knowledge management
M Knowledge management
Knowledge management is a management theory which emerged in the 1990s. It seeks
to understand the way in which knowledge is created, used and shared within
organizations. A significant part of Knowledge Management theory and practice
aligns two models: (i) the DIKW model, which places data, information, knowledge
and wisdom into an increasingly useful pyramid. (ii) Nonaka's reformulation of
Polanyi's distinction between tacit and explicit knowledge. Both of these models
are increasingly under challenge with different schools of thought emerging
which are more fully described and referenced in the main article.
An objective of mainstream knowledge management is to ensure that the right
information is delivered to the right person just in time, in order to take the
most appropriate decision. In that sense, knowledge management is not interested
in managing knowledge per se, but to relate knowledge and its usage. This leads
to Organizational Memory Systems. More recent developments have focused on
managing networks (the flow of knowledge rather than knowledge itself) and
narrative forms of knowledge exchange.
Religious meaning of knowledge
In Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the Seven gifts of the Holy
Spirit .
Hindu Scriptures say two kinds of knowledge. Paroksha Gnyana and Aporoksha
Gnyana. Paroksha Gnyana is knowledge that is second hand , the knowledge that is
obtained from books , from heresay etc. Aporoksha Gnyana is the knowledge borne
of direct experience, i.e. the knowledge that one discovers for himself.
In the Old Testament Knowledge is represented by the tree of knowledge. See:
Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil
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